1. Dissenting stockholder actions. 2. Minority oppression actions. Either may be accompanied by claims of breach of fiduciary duty. These are the…

Dissenting stockholder actions (appraisal rights) and minority oppression actions are legal remedies specifically available to minority shareholders. Dissenting stockholder actions allow shareholders who disagree with a major corporate change (e.g., a merger) to have their shares purchased at a "fair value." Minority oppression actions are brought by shareholders in closely held corporations who allege that the controlling (majority) shareholders have acted in a way that is unfairly prejudicial to their interests. Both actions, often accompanied by claims of breach of fiduciary duty by the majority, are fundamental tools for protecting the rights and investments of non-controlling owners.

B. Majority shareholders: These are the controlling parties; they initiate corporate actions and would be the defendants in, not the plaintiffs of, minority oppression or dissenter's rights cases.

C. OTC Trading: This refers to the "Over-The-Counter" market, a decentralized system for trading securities, not a legal action or a party involved in shareholder litigation.

D. Short Selling: This is an investment strategy involving the sale of a borrowed security. It is a market transaction and is unrelated to internal corporate governance disputes or shareholder rights.

1. Hitchner, J. R. (2017). Financial Valuation: Applications and Models (4th ed.). Wiley. In Chapter 25, "Valuation in Shareholder and Partner Disputes," the text explicitly discusses that these disputes arise from actions brought by minority owners, covering topics like dissenting stockholder statutes and shareholder oppression claims (pp. 765-767).

2. Pratt, S. P. (2008). Valuing a Business: The Analysis and Appraisal of Closely Held Companies (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Chapter 4, "Valuation for Specific Purposes," details the context for valuations in shareholder disputes, identifying dissenting stockholder and minority oppression suits as actions initiated by minority shareholders to seek remedy from the controlling parties (pp. 61-63).

3. O'Neal, F. H., & Thompson, R. B. (2005). O'Neal and Thompson's Oppression of Minority Shareholders and LLC Members (Rev. 2nd ed.). Thomson/West. Section 7:2, "Typical Squeeze-Out Techniques," and Section 7:3, "Breaches of Fiduciary Duties as Oppression," extensively detail the nature of oppression as actions by a controlling majority against a minority. The entire treatise is dedicated to this cause of action by minority owners.