[Fraud Risk Management] According to the routine activities theory, all of the following are important elements that influence crime EXCEPT:

The routine activities theory, developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson, posits that for a direct-contact predatory crime to occur, three elements must converge in time and space: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. These three factors form the core of the theory. "The lack of accountability for misdeeds" is a concept related to deterrence and organizational justice, which may influence offender motivation or the effectiveness of guardianship, but it is not one of the three principal, explicitly named elements of the routine activities theory itself.

A. The presence of motivated offenders is a foundational element of the theory, representing the individual(s) willing and able to commit the crime.
C. The absence of capable guardians is a critical element, referring to the lack of controls, oversight, or protection that could prevent the crime.
D. The availability of suitable targets is a core component, representing the person, asset, or data that the offender desires to exploit.

1. Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608. On page 590, the authors state,"...we hypothesize that the dispersion of activities away from households and families increases the opportunity for crime and thus generates higher crime rates. We have argued that illegal activities feed upon legal activities..." and introduce the three minimal elements: "motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians against a violation." https://doi.org/10.2307/2094589

2. Association of Certified Fraud Examiners. (2023). Fraud Examiners Manual, International Edition. Section 4.203, "Criminology and Victimology." The manual explicitly discusses the routine activities theory, identifying its three key elements as a likely offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian.

3. University of Cincinnati, School of Criminal Justice. Criminological Theory Course Materials. The routine activities theory is a staple in criminology curricula and is consistently defined by the convergence of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. These materials emphasize that the theory focuses on the circumstances of the crime rather than the characteristics of the offender.